Dry Cooking Method

Grilling

Fat dripping onto hot coals and combusting produces the grill aroma that guests recognize. It is also exactly the chemical reaction that generates PAHs. Both processes are inseparable with charcoal barbecue. The temperature you maintain and whether fat reaches the coals determines the difference between flavor and risk.

140°C Maillard reaction starts (McGee, 2004)

> 200°C HCA formation increases (RIVM, 2019)

2 ug/kg max benzo[a]pyrene EU 835/2011

63°C core beef/pork whole (USDA FSIS, 2023)

Requirements

Probe thermometer Grill pan, grill grate or charcoal barbecue Neutral oil with high smoke point (peanut 230°C or sunflower 225°C) Paper towels for patting dry ⏱ Timer

Direct heat, indirect heat and crosshatch

Direct grilling: 260-320°C for thin products

Directly above the heat source: steaks, chicken breast, fish, vegetables. Grill plate at maximum temperature (260-320°C surface). Product thickness: maximum 3-4 cm. Thicker products will be charred on the outside before the core is done. Gas: 10-15 minutes preheating. Charcoal: 20-30 minutes, coals are ready when grey with ash. (CIA Professional Chef, 9th ed., 2011)

Temp: 260-320°C Thickness: max. 4 cm

Indirect grilling: 150-180°C for thick cuts

Product is positioned next to the heat source, not above it. Lid closed. Convection heat 150-180°C. Suitable for: whole chicken (1.5-2 hours), 5 cm rib-eye (45-60 min), spareribs (3-4 hours). Method: first sear directly for Maillard, then cook indirectly to target internal temperature. (CIA, 2011)

Temp: 150-180°C Lid closed

Crosshatch: the technique behind the grill mark

Place product at 45° relative to the grill bars. Grill 2-3 minutes. Rotate 90° (product rotates, grill does not move). Grill another 2-3 minutes. Result: the diamond pattern that conveys quality. Only achievable if the product does not stick: sufficient oil on the grate, product dry before it goes on the grate. (CIA Professional Chef, 9th ed., 2011)

45° 2-3 min, then rotate 90° Oiled grate required

PAHs and HCAs: the two chemical risks of grilling

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): formed when fat drips onto hot coals above 300°C and combusts. Smoke particles deposit on the product. EU 1881/2006 (amended EU 835/2011): max. 2 ug/kg benzo[a]pyrene in grilled meat. (EFSA, 2008). Heterocyclic amines (HCAs): formed from amino acids and creatine above 200°C, strongly increasing above 300°C. IARC (2015) classifies certain HCAs as probable carcinogens (Group 2A/2B). Prevention: drip tray, marinating, avoiding charring.

PAH: >300°C fat combustion HCA: >200°C (RIVM, 2019)

Never grill frozen products directly: the outer surface chars before the core reaches a safe internal temperature. Always thaw completely and pat dry before grilling.

Step-by-step method

1

Preheat grill grate or grill pan to maximum

Gas: set to maximum power, close lid for 10-15 minutes. Charcoal: bring coals to glowing (grey ash visible), 20-30 minutes. Grill pan on stovetop: dry-heat on maximum setting for 5-7 minutes. A properly preheated grill plate is the absolute prerequisite for grill mark formation and a crispy surface.

Test the temperature with a water droplet: splatters and evaporates instantly means ready. Sizzles and boils slowly means too cold. (CIA Professional Chef, 2011)
2

Pat product dry and lightly oil

Pat the product completely dry with paper towels. Moisture on the surface lowers the surface temperature to 100°C (boiling point of water) and blocks the Maillard reaction until the moisture has evaporated. Brush lightly with neutral oil (peanut or sunflower). Oil the product, not the grill grate.

Harold McGee (On Food and Cooking, 2004): moisture on the product surface is the most common reason why grill marks do not appear.
3

Place at 45° and do not touch

Place the product at 45° relative to the grill bars. Do not move it. Do not touch it. 2-3 minutes for steaks of 2-3 cm. When the product releases from the grate without force: the Maillard crust has formed. If it sticks: wait another 30-60 seconds.

HACCP: always place product on a clean grill grate. Do not use the same grate for raw and cooked product, as this causes cross-contamination.
4

Crosshatch and flip

For crosshatch: rotate product 90° (rotate, do not flip). Grill another 2-3 minutes. Then flip for the second side. Flip a maximum of 2 times for a steak: once for crosshatch, once for the other side.
5

Measure internal temperature and rest

Measure internal temperature at the thickest point. Carryover cooking: the core rises another 2-3°C after removing from heat. Remove beef at 60-61°C for a target temperature of 63°C. Rest time: 3-5 minutes for steaks for even juice distribution.

The finger-press test for meat doneness is unreliable for HACCP. Always use a calibrated probe thermometer. (USDA FSIS, 2023)

HACCP: PAH formation, HCAs and cross-contamination when grilling

PAHs: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from charcoal barbecue

PAH formation occurs when fat and meat juices drip onto hot charcoal coals above 300°C. Pyrolysis of fat produces benzo[a]pyrene and other PAHs that deposit as smoke onto the grilled product. EU Regulation (EC) 1881/2006, amended by EU 835/2011, sets a maximum limit of 2 ug/kg benzo[a]pyrene for grilled meat and fish. (EFSA, Scientific Opinion on PAHs in Food, 2008)
Prevention: (1) use a drip tray beneath the product during indirect grilling, (2) avoid direct grilling over open flames, (3) oil-based marinades with antioxidants form a protective layer. (4) Cut away charred sections before serving.

Source: EU Regulation (EC) 1881/2006, amended by EU 835/2011; EFSA: PAHs in Food (2008); RIVM: Cancer risk from grilled meat (2019)

HCAs and cross-contamination: two additional grilling risks

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are formed when amino acids and creatine react at high temperature above 200°C, strongly increasing above 300°C. IARC (2015) classifies certain HCAs as probable carcinogens. Prevention: do not grill longer than necessary, use marinades with antioxidants (rosemary, thyme), avoid charring. (RIVM, 2019)
Cross-contamination via grill grate: Salmonella and Campylobacter in raw poultry survive on grates for up to 2 hours at room temperature. Always use separate grates for raw and cooked product, or heat the grate above 200°C for 2 minutes between uses. (NVWA, 2022)

Source: RIVM: Heterocyclic amines in grilled meat (2019); IARC: Monographs Carcinogenic Risks (2015); NVWA: Cross-contamination when grilling (2022)

Grill temperatures and internal temperatures per product

Product	Grill method	Internal temperature	Source
Beef whole (steak)	Direct 260-280°C	63°C + 3 min rest	USDA FSIS, 2023
Beef ground (hamburger)	Direct 260-280°C	71°C	USDA FSIS, 2023
Pork whole	Direct + indirect	63°C + 3 min rest	USDA FSIS, 2023
Poultry	Indirect 160-180°C	74°C	USDA FSIS, 2023
Fish (fillet)	Direct 220-260°C	63°C	USDA FSIS, 2023
Vegetables	Direct 280-320°C	Done when pierced	CIA, 2011

Source: USDA FSIS: Safe Minimum Internal Temperatures (2023); CIA Professional Chef (Wiley, 9th ed. 2011); EU Regulation 1881/2006 amended by EU 835/2011

Food cost: grill loss, marinade and value transformation

Grill loss: 15-25% of purchase weight. A 300g steak yields a 225-255g portion after grilling. Factor this into the portion cost: purchase per kilo of raw meat. A rib-eye at €28/kg purchase cost effectively costs €35/kg at 20% grill loss, plus labor time and energy costs.
Valorize cheap cuts via indirect grilling: bavette (€12-16/kg), flank steak (€10-14/kg) and short rib (€8-12/kg) are transformed at the correct temperature and long rest time into flavorful menu dishes that can command €24-35 on the menu. Direct grilling does not work for these cuts: too tough. Indirect grilling does.
Energy: gas versus charcoal. A professional gas grill at maximum power consumes 8-15 kW/hour. A charcoal barbecue: €2-5 in charcoal per session. Under continuous service pressure, gas is cheaper (startup in 10-15 min vs 20-30 min for charcoal). Charcoal delivers a distinctive aroma for which guests pay a premium.
Marinating reduces food cost and PAHs: a marinade of oil, acid and herb mix costs €0.15-0.40 per portion, provides a protective layer that reduces HCA formation (oil-based marinade with antioxidants, RIVM 2019) and makes cheaper cuts suitable for direct grilling. Double return on investment.

Frequently asked questions

How do I get perfect grill marks?

Three prerequisites: (1) preheat grate to maximum, minimum 10-15 minutes for gas or 20-30 minutes for charcoal, (2) pat the product completely dry, moisture blocks the Maillard reaction by cooling the surface to 100°C, (3) place the product at 45° and do not touch it until it releases. A product that still sticks has not yet formed a grill crust. (CIA Professional Chef, 9th ed., Wiley, 2011; Harold McGee, On Food and Cooking, 2004)

How do I prevent PAHs when using a charcoal barbecue?

Practical measures: (1) use a drip tray during indirect grilling so fat does not drip onto the coals, (2) use oil-based marinades with antioxidants such as rosemary and thyme, this reduces PAH deposition on the product, (3) always cut away black charred sections before serving, (4) avoid direct grill positions above open flames for extended periods. EU maximum limit: 2 ug/kg benzo[a]pyrene (EU Regulation 1881/2006, amended by EU 835/2011). (EFSA, PAHs in Food, 2008)

What internal temperature for a medium-rare steak?

USDA FSIS (2023) recommends for whole beef cuts (steaks, not ground): minimum 63°C internal temperature, followed by 3 minutes rest time. This corresponds to medium. For medium-rare, 57-60°C is commonly used in practice: this is technically below the USDA FSIS standard for maximum food safety. Always communicate this to guests who order raw or medium-rare. Ground beef: always 71°C, no exceptions.

When should I use direct grilling versus indirect?

Direct grilling: products thinner than 3-4 cm that are done to internal temperature in 10-15 minutes. Examples: steaks, chicken breast, fish fillets, vegetables. Indirect grilling: products thicker than 4 cm or dishes that need more than 20 minutes. Examples: whole chicken, thick ribeye, spareribs. Combination method: first sear directly for Maillard and grill marks, then cook indirectly to target internal temperature. (CIA Professional Chef, 9th ed., 2011)

May I use the same tongs for raw and cooked meat?

No. Cross-contamination via grill utensils is one of the most common causes of food poisoning at barbecues. Salmonella and Campylobacter in raw poultry are transferred to cooked product via tongs and spatulas. Rule: two sets of utensils and two plates, one for raw and one for cooked. Alternative: sterilize utensils by placing them on the glowing grate for 2 minutes. (NVWA, 2022)

How long should meat rest after grilling?

Rest time distributes juices evenly throughout the meat. Guideline: 3-5 minutes for thin steaks, 5-10 minutes for thick cuts, 15-20 minutes for whole chicken or larger pieces. Cover loosely with aluminum foil during resting, do not wrap tightly, otherwise the meat steams and the crust loses its crispy texture. (CIA Professional Chef, 2011)

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Applying the techniques described requires professional expertise and training. KitchenNmbrs is not liable for damage, injury, illness or loss resulting from the application of information from this website without adequate professional guidance or verification. Every kitchen, every product and every environment is different: always apply your own professional judgement.

Food safety & HACCP

The HACCP guidelines, temperatures and storage advice on this page are based on Codex Alimentarius (WHO/FAO) as the global baseline standard and EU Regulation 852/2004. Local laws and regulations may differ. Always consult your national food safety authority for the applicable standards in your region:

Netherlands: NVWA (nvwa.nl)
Belgium: FAVV (favv-afsca.be)
Germany: BfR (bfr.bund.de)
United Kingdom: FSA (food.gov.uk)
United States: FDA (fda.gov) — FDA Food Code
EU general: EU Regulation (EC) 852/2004 on food hygiene
International: Codex Alimentarius CAC/RCP 1-1969 (revised 2020)

Allergens & dietary information

Allergen information is indicative. When in doubt about allergens in preparations, always contact the supplier or a certified allergological adviser. KitchenNmbrs accepts no liability for allergic reactions or diet-related harm.

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Sources and legal information

Harold McGee: On Food and Cooking (Scribner, 2004): Maillard reaction, grill temperatures
CIA (Culinary Institute of America): The Professional Chef, 9th edition (Wiley, 2011): crosshatch, direct and indirect grilling methods
USDA FSIS: Safe Minimum Internal Temperatures (2023)
EU Regulation (EC) 1881/2006, amended by EU 835/2011: maximum limits benzo[a]pyrene
EFSA: Scientific Opinion on PAHs in Food (EFSA Journal, 2008)
RIVM: Heterocyclic amines and cancer risk from grilled meat (2019)
IARC: Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (2015)
NVWA: Food safety when barbecuing and grilling (2022)